Methods and means for inducing apoptosis by interfering with Bip-like proteins

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to activation of apoptosis by means of interference of the function of Bip-like compounds. Also the invention relates to anti-tumor therapies with compounds, which negatively interfere with Bip-like compounds leading to induction of apoptosis, resulting in the elimination of tumor cells. Also the invention relates to therapies for diseases related to aberrant apoptosis induction, such as auto-immune diseases. Also the invention describes the diagnosis of cells, which are susceptible to apoptin or apoptin-like induced apoptosis.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a §371 filing of PCT/NL98/00688, filed Dec. 3, 1998, which claims priority from European Patent Application No. 97203783.2, filed Dec. 3, 1997.

The present invention relates to the field of apoptosis, as well as to the field of cancer diagnosis and treatment, and treatment and diagnosis of auto-immune diseases and other diseases by induction of apoptosis. In particular the invention provides novel molecules and means to induce apoptosis or enhance apoptosis. The novel molecules and means are part of the apoptotic pathway induced by apoptin. Apoptin is a protein originally found in chicken anemia virus (CAV; Noteborn et al., 1991) and was originally called VP3. The apoptotic activity of this protein was discovered by the group of the present inventors (Noteborn et al., 1994).

As stated above the present invention makes use of the induction of apoptosis in which Bip-like proteins are involved.

Apoptosis is an active and programmed physiological process for eliminating superfluous, altered or malignant cells (Earnshaw, 1995, Duke et al., 1996). Apoptosis is characterized by shrinkage of cells, segmentation of the nucleus, condensation and cleavage of DNA into domain-sized fragments, in most cells followed by internucleosomal degradation. The apoptotic cells fragment into membrane-enclosed apoptotic bodies. Finally, neighbouring cells and/or macrophages will rapidly phagocytose these dying cells (Wyllie et al., 1980, White, 1996). Cells grown under tissue-culture conditions and cells from tissue material can be analysed for being apoptotic with agents staining DNA, as e.g. DAPI, which stains normal DNA strongly and regularly, whereas apoptotic DNA is stained weakly and/or irregularly (Noteborn et al., 1994, Telford et al., 1992).

The apoptotic process can be initiated by a variety of regulatory stimuli (Wyllie, 1995, White 1996, Levine, 1997). Changes in the cell survival rate play an important role in human pathogenesis, e.g. in cancer development, which is caused by enhanced proliferation but also by decreased cell death (Kerr et al., 1994, Paulovich, 1997). A variety of chemotherapeutic compounds and radiation have been demonstrated to induce apoptosis in tumor cells, in many instances via wild-type p53 protein (Thompson, 1995, Bellamy et al., 1995, Steller, 1995, McDonell et al., 1995).

Many tumors, however, acquire a mutation in p53 during their development, often correlating with poor response to cancer therapy. Transforming genes of tumorigenic DNA viruses inactivate p53 by directly binding to it (Teodoro, 1997). An example of such an agent is the large T antigen of the tumor DNA virus SV40. For several (leukemic) tumors, a high expression level of the proto-oncogene Bcl-2 or Bcr-abl is associated with a strong resistance to various apoptosis-inducing chemotherapeutic agents (Hockenberry 1994, Sachs and Lotem, 1997).

For such cancers (representing more than half of the tumors) alternative anti-tumor therapies are under development based on induction of apoptosis independent of p53 (Thompson 1995, Paulovich et al., 1997). One has to search for the factors involved in induction of apoptosis, which do not need p53 and/or can not be blocked by Bcl-2/Bcr-abl-like anti-apoptotic activities. These factors might be part of a distinct apoptosis pathway or being (far) downstream to the apoptosis inhibiting compounds.

Apoptin is a small protein derived from chicken anemia virus (CAV; Noteborn and De Boer, 1995, Noteborn et al., 1991, Noteborn et al., 1994), which can induce apoptosis in human malignant and transformed cell lines, but not in untransformed human cell lines. In vitro, apoptin fails to induce programmed cell death in normal lymphoid, dermal, epidermal, endothelial and smooth-muscle cells. However, when normal cells are transformed they become susceptible to apoptosis by apoptin. (Danen-van Ooschot, 1997 and Noteborn, 1996). Long-term expression of apoptin in normal human fibroblasts revealed that apoptin has no toxic or transforming activity in these cells.

In normal cells, apoptin was found predominantly in the cytoplasm, whereas in transformed or malignant cells i.e. characterized by hyperplasia, metaplasia or dysplasia, it was located in the nucleus, suggesting that the localization of apoptin is related to its activity (Danen-van Oorschot et al. 1997).

Apoptin-induced apoptosis occurs in the absence of functional p53 (Zhuang et al., 1995a), and cannot be blocked by Bcl-2, Bcr-abl (Zhuang et al., 1995), the Bcl-2-associating protein BAG-1 and not by the caspase-inhibitor cowpox protein CrmA (Danen-Van Oorschot, 1997a, Noteborn, 1996).

Therefore, apoptin is a potent agent for the destruction of tumor cells, or other hyperplasia, metaplasia or dysplasia which have become resistant to (chemo)therapeutic induction of apoptosis, due to the lack of functional p53 and (over)—expression of Bcl-2 and other apoptosis-inhibiting agents. (Noteborn et al., 1997).

The fact that apoptin does not induce apoptosis in normal human cells, at least not in vitro, suggests that a toxic effect of apoptin treatment in vivo will be very low. Noteborn et al. (1997) have provided evidence that adenovirus expressed apoptin does not have an acute toxic effect in vivo. In addition, in nude mice it was shown that apoptin has a strong anti-tumor activity.

It appears, that even pre-malignant, minimally transformed cells, may be sensitive to the death-inducing effect of apoptin. In addition, Noteborn and Zhang (1997) have shown that apoptin-induced apoptosis can be used as diagnosis of cancer-prone cells and treatment of cancer-prone cells.

Knowing that apoptin is quite safe in normal cells, but that, as soon as, a cell becomes transformed and/or immortalized (the terms may be used interchangeable herein) the present inventors designed novel means and methods for the induction of apoptosis based on the identification of compounds involved in the apoptin-induced apoptotic cascade. These compounds are factors of an apoptosis pathway, which is specific for transformed cells. Therefore, these proteins are very important compounds in new treatments and diagnosis for diseases related with aberrancies in the apoptotic process, such as cancer, and auto-immune diseases.

A group of proteins found to be associated with the apoptotic pathway is the family of Bip-like proteins.

Thus the invention provides a recombinant and/or isolated nucleic acid molecule encoding at least a functional part of a member of the family of Bip/GRP78-like proteins comprising at least a functional and/or specific part of the sequence given in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 or a sequence at least 70%, preferably 80, most preferably 90% homologous therewith. In one possible mechanism of action Bip-like proteins which are chaperones bind to apoptin or apoptin-like proteins resulting in a conformational change in the apoptin-like proteins resulting in enhanced apoptotic activity. Protein-like activity herein is defined as any molecule indirectly or directly providing similar activity as the original protein (in kind not necessarily in amount). It is preferred to bring the Bip-like activity into a cell, which can be done suitably using an expression vector. It is of course preferred if not required that such a cell is also provided with apoptotic, preferably apoptin-like activity. A very suitable manner is to provide apoptin-like activity on another or the same vector.

The invention also provides a recombinant and/or isolated proteinaceous substance having Bip/GRP78-like activity and comprising at least a functional part of the sequence of FIG. 6 or FIG. 7 or a functional equivalent thereof or being encoded by a nucleic acid molecule according to claim 1. Except as being used for enhancing apoptosis this proteinaceous substance can also be used to identify further apoptotic agents. Such agents are therefor also part of the present invention.

The invention further provides a method for inducing apoptosis in a cell comprising providing said cell with Bip/GRP78 inhibiting activity, preferably together with apoptin-like activity.

As stated the invention provides a method for inducing apoptosis through interference with the function of Bip-like proteins (interchangeably referred to as Bip or Bip-like proteins).

The invention provides an anti-tumor therapy based on the interference with the function of Bip-like proteins. The fact that Bip-like proteins are abundantly present in tumor cells in combination with highly-expressed oncogenes and that Bip associates with apoptin, makes Bip-like proteins very important targets of an anti-tumor agent.

The invention provides Bip as the mediator of apoptin-induced apoptosis, which is tumor-specific.

The invention will be explained in more detail in the following experimental part. This only serves for the purpose of illustration and should not be interpreted as a limitation of the scope of the invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows the DNA sequence of the analysed region of the apoptin-associating clone Bip/GRP78 No-1 (SEQ ID NO: 1).

FIG. 2 shows the DNA sequence of the analysed region of the apoptin-associating clone Bip/GRP78 No-2 (SEQ ID NO:2)

FIG. 3 shows the DNA sequence of the analysed region of the apoptin-associating clone Bip/GRP78 No-3 (SEQ ID NO:3).

FIG. 4 shows the DNA sequence of the analysed region of the apoptin-associating clone Bip/GRP78 No-4 (SEQ ID NO:4).

FIG. 5 shows the DNA sequence of the analysed region of the apoptin-associating clone Bip/GRP78 No-5 (SEQ ID NO:5).

FIG. 6 shows the combination of the amino acids of the sequenced Bip-like clones No-1 through No-5 (SEQ ID NOs:6, 7 and 9-11). The fact that they overlap with each other implies that the common region of all five inserts will associate with apoptin. The amino acid sequence of the known Bip/GRP78 is also shown (SEQ ID NO:8). In addition, the three C-terminal amino acids H-E-G of the multiple cloning site of pACT are given to illustrate that the Bip/GRP78-like amino acid sequence is in frame with the GAL-activation domain. This feature proves that the Bip-GRP78-like region is indeed synthesized.

FIG. 7 shows the amino acids of the sequenced region of the apoptin associating clone Filamin No-1 and No-2 (SEQ ID NO:13-). In addition, the three C-terminal amino acids H-E-G of the multiple cloning site of pACT are given to illustrate that the filamin-like amino acid sequence is in frame with the GAL4-activation domain. This feature proves that the filamin-like region is indeed synthesized. The amino acid sequence of the known Filamin is also shown (SEQ ID NO: 12).

FIG. 8 shows the amino acid sequence, derived frm the analysed region of the apoptin-associating clones TRP-1 No 1 through No4 (SEQ ID NOs:15 and 17-19). Also, the known TRP-1 (EMBL/Genbank) is shown (SEQ ID NO:16).

FIG. 9 shows the DNA sequence of the analysed region of the apoptin-associating clone DNAJ-like protein (SEQ ID NO:20).

FIG. 10 shows the induction of apoptosis due to co-expression in normal non-transformed VH10 cells of Apoptin and Desmin (VP3+des; negative control), wild-type SV40 LT (VP3+LT), LT-mutant lacking the retinoblastoma-binding site (VP3+3213), LT-mutant missing the p53-binding sites (VP3+5031), LT-mutant with a deletion in the J domain (VP3+1135), and LT-mutant 136 containing almost only the J domain or a nuclear localization signal (VP3+136). Actually, the % of apoptosis observed with desmin and Apoptin resembles the background level due to the transfection procedures (Danen-Van Oorschot, 1997).

FIG. 11 shows the nuclear localization of Apoptin due to co-expression, as described also for FIG. 10, in normal non-transformed VH10 cells of Apoptin and Desmin (VP3+des; negative control), wild-type SV40 LT (VP3+LT), LT-mutant lacking the retinoblastoma-binding site (VP3+3213), LT-mutant missing the p53-binding sites (VP3+5031), LT-mutant with a deletion in the J domain (VP3+1135), or LT-mutant 136 containing almost only the J domain and a nuclear localization signal (VP3+136). Actually, the % of nuclear localization observed with desmin and Apoptin resembles the background level due to the transfection procedures (Danen-Van Oorschot, 1997).

EXPERIMENTAL PART

The inventors have used the yeast-2 hybrid system (Durfee et al., 1993) to identify apoptin-associating cellular compounds, that are essential in the induction of apoptosis. The used system is an in-vivo strategy to identify human proteins capable of physically associating with apoptin. It has been used to screen cDNA libraries for clones encoding proteins capable of binding to a protein of interest (Fields and Song, 1989, Yang et al., 1992).

Construction of pGBT9-VP3

For the construction of the bait plasmid, which enables the identification of apoptin-associating proteins by means of a yeast-two-hybrid system, plasmid pET-16b-VP3 (Noteborn, unpublished results) was treated with NdeI and BamHI. The 0.4 kb NdeI-BamHI DNA fragment was isolated from low-melting-point agarose.

Plasmid pGBT9 (Clontech Laboratories, Inc, Palo Alto, USA) was treated with the restriction enzymes EcoRI and BamHI. The about 5.4 kb DNA fragment was isolated and ligated with an EcoRI-NdeI linker and the 0.4-kb NdeI-BamHI DNA fragment containing the apoptin-encoding sequences starting from its own ATG-initiation codon. The final construct containing a fusion gene of the GAL4-binding domain sequence and apoptin under the regulation of the yeast promoter ADH was called pGBT-VP3 and was proven to be correct by restriction-enzyme analysis and DNA-sequencing according to the Sanger method (1977).

All cloning steps were essentially carried out as described by Maniatis et al. (1992). The plasmid pGBT-VP3 was prurified by centrifugation in a CsCl gradient and column chromatography in Sephacryl S500 (Pharmacia).

GAL4-activation domain-tagged CDNA libraries

The expression vector pACT, containing the cDNAs from Epstein-Barr-virus-transformed human B cells fused to sequences for the GAL4 transcriptional activation domain, was used for detecting apoptin-associating proteins. The pACT c-DNA library is derived from the lambda-ACT cDNA library, as described by Durfee et al. 1993.

Bacterial and Yeast Strains

The E.coli strain JM109 was the transformation recipient for the plasmid pGBT9 and pGBT-VP3. The bacterial strain Electromax/DH10B was used for the transformation needed for the recovery of the apoptin-associating pACT-cDNAs, and was obtained from GIBCO-BRL, USA).

The yeast strain Y190 was used for screening the cDNA library, and all other transformations which are part of the used yeast-two-hybrid system.

Media

For drug selections Luria Broth (LB) plates for E.coli were supplemented with ampicillin (50 microgram per ml). Yeast YPD and SC media were prepared as described by Rose et al. (1990).

Transformation of Competent Yeast Strain Y190 with Plasmids pGBT-VP3 and pACT-cDNA and Screening for Beta-galactosidase Activity

The yeast strain Y190 was made competent and transformed according to the methods described by Klebe et al. (1983). The yeast cells were first transformed with PGBT-VP3 and subsequently transformed with pACT-cDNA, and these transformed yeast cells were grown on histidine-minus plates, also lacking leucine and tryptophan.

Hybond-N filters were layed on yeast colonies, which were histidine-positive and allowed to wet completely. The filters were lifted and submerged in liquid nitrogen to permeabilize the yeast cells. The filters were thawed and layed with the colony side up on Whattman 3 MM paper in a petridish with Z-buffer (Per liter: 16.1 gr Na₂HPO₄.7H₂O, 5.5 gr NaH₂PO₄. H₂O, 0.75 gr KCl and 0,246 gr MgSO₄.7H₂O, pH 7.0) containing 0.27% beta-mercapto-ethanol and 1mg/ml X-gal. The filters were incubated for at least 15 minutes or overnight.

Recovery of Plasmids From Yeast

Total DNA from yeast cells, which were histidine- and beta-galactosidase-positive was prepared by using the glusulase-alkaline lysis method as described by Hoffman and Winston (1987) and used to transform Electromax/DH10B bacteria via electroporation using a Bio-Rad GenePulser according the manufacturer's specifications.

Transformants were plated on LB media containing ampicillin.

Isolation of Apoptin-associating pACT Clones

By means of a colony-filter assay the colonies were lysed and hybridized to a radioactive-labeled 17-mer oligomer, which is specific for pACT (see section entitled Sequence analysis).

DNA was isolated from the pACT-positive clones, and by means of XhoI digestion analysed for the presence of a cDNA insert.

Sequence Analysis

The subclones containing the sequences encoding apoptin-associating proteins were sequenced using dideoxy NTPs according to the Sanger method, which was performed by EuroGentec Nederland BV (Maastricht, The Netherlands). The used sequence primer was a pACT-specific 17-mer comprising the DNA-sequence 5′-TACCACTACAATGGATG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:21).

The sequences of the apoptin-associating proteins were compared with known gene sequences from the EMBL/Genbank.

Results and Discussion

Apoptin specifically induces apoptosis in transformed cells, such as cell lines derived from human tumors. To identify the essential compounds in this cell-transformation-specific and/or tumor-specific apoptosis pathway, a yeast genetic screen was carried out.

We have used a human cDNA library, which is based on the plasmid vector pACT containing the complete cDNA copies made from Epstein-Barr virus-transformed human B cells (Durfee et al., 1993).

Construction of a Bait Plasmid Expressing a Fusion-gene Containing a GAL4 DNA-binding Domain and Apoptin

To examine the existence of apoptin-associating proteins in the human transformed/tumorigenic cDNA library, a so-called bait plasmid had to be constructed.

To that end, the complete apoptin-encoding region, flanked by about 40 basepairs downstream from the apoptin gene, was cloned in the multiple cloning site of plasmid pGBT9.

The final construct, called pGBT-VP3, was analysed by restriction-enzyme analysis and sequencing of the fusion area between apoptin and the GAL4-DNA-binding domain.

A Gene(fragment) Encoding an Apoptin-associating Protein is Determined by Transactivation of a GAL4-responsive Promoter in Yeast

The apoptin gene is fused to the GAL4-DNA-binding domain of plasmid pGBT-VP3, whereas all cDNAs derived from the transformed human B cells are fused to the GAL4-activation domain of plasmid pACT. If one of the cDNAs will bind to apoptin, the GAL4-DNA-binding domain will in the vicinity of the GAL4-activation domain resulting in the activation of the GAL4-responsive promoter, which regulates the reporter genes HIS3 and LacZ.

The yeast clones containing plasmid expressing apoptin and a plasmid expressing an apoptin-associating protein (fragment) can grow on a histidine-minus medium and will stain blue in a beta-galactosidase assay. Subsequently, the plasmid with the cDNA insert encoding the apoptin-associating protein can be isolated and characterized.

We have determined that transformation of yeast cells with pGBT-VP3 plasmid alone or in combination with an empty pACT vector, did not result in the activation of the GAL4-responsive promoter.

Identification of Apoptin-associating Proteins Encoded by cDNAs Derived from a Human transformed B Cell Line

We have found yeast colonies, which upon transformation with pGBT-VP3 and pACT-cDNA were able to grow on a histidine-minus medium (also lacking leucine and tryptophan) and stained blue in a beta-galactosidase assay. These results indicate that these yeast colonies contain besides the bait plasmid pGBT-VP3 a pACT plasmid encoding for a potential apoptin-associating protein.

Plasmid DNA was isolated from these positive yeast colonies, which were transformed in bacteria. By means of a filter-hybridization assay using a pACT-specific labeled DNA-probe, the clones containing pACT plasmid could be determined. Subsequently, pACT DNA was isolated and digested with restriction enzyme XhoI, which is indicative for the presence of a cDNA insert. The pACT plasmids with a cDNA were sequenced.

Description of an Apoptin-associating Protein

The yeast genetic screen for apoptin-associating proteins resulted in the detection of Bip-like proteins (Bip is also called GRP78 protein).

The determined DNA sequences of the five independent Bip/GRP78 cDNA clones are shown in FIGS. 1-5, respectively. The combined amino acid sequence of all clones is given in FIG. 6, illustrating that they share a common region, which will be the part associating with apoptin.

Construction of an Expression Vector for the Identification of the Association of Apoptin and Bip/GRP78-like Proteins in Transformed Mammalian Cells

To study the association of Apoptin and Bip/GRP78-like proteins in a mammalian cellular background, we have generated pSM2NT vectors containing the Bip/GRP78 cDNA inserts. Another important feature of this approach is that we can prove that the cloned cDNA indeed encodes an (Apoptin-associating) protein product.

The DNA plasmid pSM2NT contains the adenovirus 5 major late promoter (MLP) and the SV40 ori enabling high levels of expression of foreign genes in transformed mammalian cells, such as Cos cells.

Furthermore, the pSM2NT vector contains a Myc-tag (amino acids: EQKLISEEDL (SEQ ID NO:22)) which is in frame with the foreign-gene product. This Myc-tag enables the recognition of the e.g., Apoptin-associating proteins by means of th Myc-tag-specific 9E10 antibody.

The pSM2NT construct expressing Myc-tagged Bip/GRP78 was constructed as follows. The pACT-Bip/GRP78 clone no. 31 was digested with the restriction enzyme XhoI and the requested CDNA insert was isolated. The expression vector pSM2NT was digested with XhoI and treated with calf intestine alkline phosphatase and ligated to the subsequent isolated cDNA inserts. By sequence analysis, the pSM2NT clone containing the Bip/GRP78 cDNA in the correct orientation were identified.

The expression of the Myc-tagged Bip/GRP78 protein was analyzed by transfection of Cos cells with plasmid pSM2NT-Bip/GRP78. As negative control, Cos cells were mock-transfected.

Two days after transfection, the cells were lysed and Western-blot analysis was carried out using the Myc-tag-specific antibody 9E10. The Cos cells transfected with pSM2NT-Bip/GRP78 were proven to synthesize a specific Myc-tagged Bip/GRP78 product with the expected size of approximately 27 kDa. As expected, the lysates of the mock-transfected Cos cells did not contain a protein product reacting with the Myc-tag-specific antibodies.

These results indicate that we have been able to isolate a cDNA that indeed is able to produce a Bip/GRP78-like protein product with the ability to associate with the apoptosis-inducing protein Apoptin.

Co-immunoprecipitation of Myc-tagged Bip/GRP78 with Apoptin in a Transformed Mammalian Cell System

Next, we have analyzed the association of Apoptin and Bip/GRP78 by means of co-immunoprecipitations using the Myc-tag-specific antibody 9E10. The 9E10 antibody was shown not to bind directly to Apoptin, which enables the use of 9E10 for carrying out co-immuno-precipitation assays with (myc-tagged) Apoptin-associating proteins and Apoptin. To that end, Cos cells were co-transfected with plasmid pCMV-VP3 encoding Apoptin and with plasmid pSM2NT-Bip/GRP78 encoding the Myc-tagged Bip/GRP78 protein. As negative control, we have transfected cells with Apoptin and a plasmid pSM2NT-LacZ encoding the myc-tagged beta-galactosidase, which does not associate with Apoptin.

Two days after transfection, the cells were lysed in a buffer consisting of 50 mM Tris (7.5), 250 mM NaCl, 5 mM EDTA, 0.1 % Triton X100, 1 mg/ml Na₄P₂O₇ and freshly added protease inhibitors such as PMSF, Trypsine-inhibitor, Leupeptine and Na₃VO₄. The specific proteins were immuno-precipitated as described by Noteborn et al. (1998) using the Myc-tag-specific antibodies 9E10, and analyzed by Western blotting.

Staining of the Western blot with 9E10 antibodies and 111.3 antibodies, which are specifically directed against Apoptin, showed that the ‘total’ cell lysates contained Apoptin and the Myc-tagged Bip/GRP78 or beta-galactosidase product. Immunoprecipitation of the Myc-tagged Bip/GRP78 products was accompanied by the immunoprecipatation of Apoptin product of 16 kDa. In contrast, immunoprecipitation of myc-tagged beta-galactosidase did not result in co-precipitation of the Apoptin protein.

In total, three independent immunoprecipitation experiments were carried out, which all showed the associating ability of Apoptin to the Bip/GRP78 proteins.

These results indicate that besides the yeast background, Bip/GRP78 is able to specifically associate with Apoptin in a mammalian transformed cellular system.

Characteristics of Bip/GRP78-like Proteins

Glucose regulated proteins are, like heat shock proteins, induced by stress. The most abundant glucose regulated protein is GRP78 (78 kD), also known as the immunoglobulin heavy chain binding protein Bip. It functions as a molecular chaperone and binds Ca²⁺. It is expressed in many cell types and is located in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER; Lee, 1992).

Bip is permanently highly expressed in progressively growing tumors. Furthermore, Bip levels were increased in murine embryonic cells transformed by chemicals or radiation, and the level of Bip in fibrosarcomas was found to correlate with tumor growth (Gazit et al., 1995).

In Chinese hamster ovary cells, inhibition of Bip leads to increased cell death during chronic hypoxia or after treatment with a Ca2+ ionophore. In fibrosarcoma cells, Bip protects against cell lysis induced by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), suggesting that increased levels of Bip may protect tumor cells from immune attack in vivo (Sugawara et al., 1990).

In B/C10ME fibrosarcoma cells, inhibition of Bip by an anti-sense construct results in increased apoptotic cell death after Ca2+ depletion from the ER, but the in vitro growth rate is not affected. Upon injection of these cells in mice, no tumors were formed (Jamora et al., 1996).

Jamora et al. (1996) have suggested that suppression of Bip may be a new approach to cancer therapy. Their data, however, do not prove the application of such a therapy. The fact that Bip associates with apoptin, makes apoptin and/or Bip essential elements of a feasible anti-tumor therapy (Noteborn et al., 1997).

Therefore, the interference of Bip by, e.g. apoptin, in transformed cells is the crucial event during anti-tumor therapy. We have found an example of an effective regulator of Bip-like proteins, resulting in induction of apoptosis, which is the key to tumor rejection.

Induction of Apoptosis Through Interference of Bip-like Proteins

Our results indicate that apoptin can change and/or eliminate the Bip-like mediated activity, resulting in induction of apoptosis. This mechanism is one possibility of action (Jamora et al., 1996).

Bip-like proteins are chaperone proteins, which can influence the conformation of proteins and by doing so its function. Association of apoptin with Bip-like proteins will result in a change of its conformation and its function. Apoptin will be able to enter and/or to stay in the nucleus of (transformed) cells, and as a consequence the cell. will undergo apoptosis.

It is known that apoptin induces apoptosis preferentially in transformed cells and/or cells expressing transforming agents, most likely due to interaction with specific Bip-like proteins.

Co-expression of Bip-like Protein and Apoptin in Normal Cells Results in Induction of Apoptosis

Next, we have examined the effect of expression of Bip-like proteins and apoptin on the induction of apoptosis in normal cells. To that end, VH10 and VH25 cells were transfected with plasmids encoding Bip-like protein and apoptin (Graham and Van der Eb, 1973). By immunofluorescence apoptin- and/or Bip specific monoclonal antibodies (Noteborn et al., Van den Heuvel, 1990) apoptin- and Bip-positive cells were detected.

The percentage of apoptotic cells within the group of apoptin and/or Bip-like protein-positive cells was detected staining the cells with DAPI (Danen-Van Oorschot et al., 1997, Telford et al., 1992). The normal fibroblasts expressing apoptin or Bip alone did not undergo apoptosis, whereas the cells co-expressing both apoptin and Bip did.

Factors that make use of interference with the function of Bip-like proteins, which results in induction of apoptosis are apoptin and apoptin-like proteins. Furthermore, it concerns proteins that are related to apoptin-induced apoptosis, such as the CAV-derived protein VP2, which is known to enhance apoptin-induced apoptosis (Noteborn et al., 1997).

Other Apoptin-associating Proteins

The genetic yeast screen with pGBT-VP3 as bait plasmid and pACT plasmid containing cDNAs from transformed human B cells also delivered the protein filamin. The protein filamin is localized within lamellipodia and filopodia. Filamin is one of the cross-linking proteins of actin. It may play an additional role of linking the cytoskeleton to cell-substratum adhesion sites (Matsudaira, 1994).

Two independent filamin-like clones were found. The found associating amino acid sequence of the two filamin clones are shown in FIG. 7.

To analyze into further detail the associating properties of Apoptin and filamin, we have co-expressed Myc-tagged filamin-like proteins by means of the pSM2NT vector (as described for Bip/GRP78) in Cos cells together with Apoptin.

Immunoprecipitation data clearly showed that 9E10 precipitates both filamin and Apoptin indicating that Apoptin associates to filamin in Cos cells. Our data indicate that Apoptin associates with filamin in both yeast and transformed mammalian cells.

Another apoptin-associating protein that was found is a TPR-1-like protein. In total four independent pACT-cDNA clones could be determined. TPR-1 (Murthy et al., 1996) was indentified by its ability to bind to neuro-fibromin. It contains three tandem tetratricotpeptide motifs (Blatch et al., 1997), but shows no homology outside this domain to other known proteins. The combined amino acid sequence of the observed TPR-1 clones is shown in FIG. 8.

Also, a human homolog of the bacterial chaperone DNAJ (Schlenstedt et al., 1995) was found as an apoptin-associating protein. The DNA sequence of the observed DNAJ-like clone is shown in FIG. 9.

To analyze into further detail the associating properties of Apoptin and this DNAJ-like protein, we initially have expressed Myc-tagged DNAJ-like cDNA (clone 26; see FIG. 9) by means of the pSM2NT vector (as described for Bip/GRP78) in Cos cells. Western-blot analysis using the Myc-tag-specific antibodies 9E10 showed a specific Myc-tagged DNAJ-like protein of 30 kDa. These results indicate that the isolated cDNA indeed encodes a protein of the expected size.

Next immunoprecipitation assays were carried out with transiently transfected Cos cells co-synthesizing Myc-tagged DNAJ and Apoptin. The results clearly showed that 9E10 precipitates both DNAJ-like proteins and Apoptin indicating that Apoptin associates with this new DNAJ-like protein in a mammalian transformed background. In total, three independent immunoprecipitation experiments were carried out, which all showed the associating ability of Apoptin to the DNAJ-like proteins.

In summary, our findings prove that our newly discovered DNAJ-like protein is able to associate to the apoptosis-inducing protein Apoptin in both a yeast and mammalian cellular background. Therefore, this DNAJ-like protein plays an important role in the induction of (Apoptin-regulated) apoptosis.

Other DNAJ-like Domains (indirectly) also Activate Apoptin-induced Apoptosis in Non-transformed Human Cells

Co-expression of SV40 large T antigen (LT) and Apoptin results in apoptin-induced apoptosis in normal diploid cells derived from human individuals and rodents (Noteborn and Zhang, 1998). These data prove that diploid cells are not susceptible to Apoptin, whereas they become when they express a transforming protein.

In a new series of experiments, we have investigated the effect of mutations within SV40 LT on the level of Apoptin-induced apoptosis in normal diploid human fibroblasts.

To that end, human VH10 fibroblasts were co-transfected with plasmids encoding Apoptin and complete LT, LT-mutant 3213, lacking the Retinoblastoma-binding site, LT-mutant 5031 lacking pS53-binding sites, LT-mutant 1135 minus the J-domain or the LT-mutant 136 containing almost only the J-domain sequences and the nuclear location signal of SV40 (Srinivasan, 1997). This SV40 DNAJ-like domain harbors transforming activity and is involved in DNA replication, which is similar to the E. coli DNAJ activity is involved in lambda bacteriophage DNA replication (Campbell et al., 1997).

The LT mutants lacking the Retinoblastoma and p53-binding sites were shown to translocate Apoptin into the nucleus and activate the Apoptin-induced apoptosis to the same extent-as the wild-type LT (Noteborn and Zhang, 1998; FIGS. 10 and 11). These data indicate that both p53 and Retionoblastoma gene products are not relevant for Apoptin-induced apoptosis, which confirms our previous data (Zhang et al., 1995).

In contrast to the LT mutant with the DNAJ-domain deletion, which causes significantly less Apoptin activity in the normal VH10 fibroblasts. This feature shows the importance of the LT DNAJ-like domain on the Apoptin activity. These results are strengthened by the fact that the LT mutant containing almost only the DNAJ-like domain activates Apoptin completely and translocates it optimally into the nucleus (FIGS. 10 and 11).

The SV40 DNAJ-like domain is not homologous to the Apoptin-associating sequences of our newly cloned DNAJ-like cDNA. This observation is in agreement with the fact that Apoptin does not directly associate with the SV40 LT DNAJ-like domain, as detected in co-immunoprecipitations.

Therefore, we conclude that DNAJ-like proteins have at least two independent domains playing a role in Apoptin-induced apoptosis. Nevertheless, these results show the obvious relationship of Apoptin and DNAJ-like activity in the ability of Apoptin induction of apoptosis.

Differential Post-translational Modification Patterns of Apoptin in Transformed/tumorigenic Cells Versus Normal Cells

The fact that Apoptin is active in a transformed/tumorigenic cellular background, due to DNAJ-like activities and/or other agents, let us conclude to determine a possible differential modificational characteristic of Apoptin in human transformed/tumorigenic cells versus normal cells.

Therefore, we have carried out a kinase-reaction assay on a bacterial-produced Apoptin protein and lysates obtained from transformed/tumorigenic human cells (Saos-2 cells; Zhuang et al., 1995) or from normal non-transformed VH10 cells. Apoptin incubated with lysate derived from the transformed/tumorigenic human cells was labeled with 32P, whereas Apoptin with lysates derived from normal non-transformed cells was not. These results indicate that (human) transformed/tumorigenic cells harbor an Apoptin-specific kinase activity, which is absent in non-transformed (human) cells.

The fact that Apoptin is differentially post-translationally modified in transformed/tumorigenic versus normal non-transformed cells, forms the base of a diagnostic assay for the determination of transformed/tumorigenic material derived from patients with suspicious tissue.

The advantage of such a method is that one does not need to culture primary (tumor) cells under tissue-culture conditions. Most of the cases, isolated primary (tumor) cells will hardly grow under these conditions.

Production of Polyclonal Antibodies Directed Against DNAJ Like Proteins

For the production of polyclonal antibodies against DNAJ-like proteins a putative immunogenic peptide was synthesized (N-terminus-RNKPVARQAPGKRKC-C/terminus (SEQ ID NO:23); EuroGentec SA, Belgium). Subsequently, rabbits were injected with the specific peptides according to the standard procedures of the manufacturer.

The serum derived from the rabbits injected with the DNAJ-like peptide was shown to be specific for in this report described DNAJ-like products by means of immuno-fluoresence, and Western-blot assays.

These results imply that we have generated specific antibodies, which can be used for detecting our discovered DNAJ-like Apoptin-associating protein.

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23 1 661 DNA Homo sapiens misc_feature (91)..(91) The “n” at position 91 may be any of g, a, t or c. 1 cagcttctga taatcaacca actgttacaa tcaaggtcta tgaaggtgaa agacccctga 60 caaaagacaa tcatcttctg ggtacatttg ntccgactgg aattcctcct gctcctcgtg 120 gggtcccaca gattgaagtc acctttgaga tagatgtgaa tggtattctt cgaagtgaca 180 gctgangaca agggtacagg gaacanaaat aagatcacaa tcaccaatga ccagaatcgc 240 ctgacacctg aagaaatcna aaggntggtt aatgatgctg agaattttgc tgaggaagac 300 aaaaanctca aggancgcat tgatactaga aatganttgg aaanctatgc cnattctcta 360 aagaatcaga ttggngataa ngaaaanctg gaaggtaaac tttcctcgga anatanggan 420 accatggaaa aacntgtnna aagaaaaatt tngantggnt ggaaaancaa ccaatatgcn 480 gacttnnaaa nttcaangnt aagannaggg aantgggaan aatttttcac ccattttncn 540 agnanaccct angnanttnn aaggcccccc cccaattngg tanaggggtt ccaccanaan 600 aaatngtttt ntcacncggt ttcngannng nctnttaann ttgtaaaatn ggggccccnt 660 t 661 2 622 DNA Homo sapiens misc_feature (484)..(484) The “n” at position 484 may be any of g, a, t or c. 2 cagcttctga taatcaacca actgttacaa tcaaggtcta tgaaggtgaa agacccctga 60 caaaagacaa tcatcttctg ggtacatttg atctgactgg aattcctcct gctcctcgtg 120 gggtcccaca gattgaagtc acctttgaga tagatgtgaa tggtattctt cgagtgacag 180 ctgaagacaa gggtacaggg aacaaaaata agatcacaat caccaatgac cagaatcgcc 240 tgacacctga agaaatcgaa aggatggtta atgatgctga gaagtttgct gaggaagaca 300 aaaagctcaa ggagcgcatt gatactagaa atgagttgga aagctatgcc tattctctaa 360 agaatcagat tggagataaa gaaaagctgg gaggtaaact ttcctctgaa gataaggaga 420 ccatggaaaa agctgtagaa gaaaagattg aatggctgga aagccaccaa gatgctgaca 480 ttgnagactt caaagctaan aangaaggaa ctggnanaaa ttgttcancc aattatcagc 540 aaactccaat ggaagtgcaa gccctccccc aactggtgaa gangatacaa ncangaaaaa 600 gatgagttgt tacactgatc tt 622 3 703 DNA Homo sapiens misc_feature (55)..(55) The “n” at position 55 may be any of g, a, t or c. 3 ctgataatca accaactgtt acaatcaagg tctatgaagg tgaaagaccc ctganaaaag 60 acaatcatct tctgggtaca tttgatttga caaacattcn tcctgctcct cgtggggtcc 120 cacagattga tngtcacctt tgagatagat gtgaatggta ttcttcgagt gacannntga 180 ncgacaaggg tacagggaan aaaactaaga tcanantcac caaatgatca anaatcgnct 240 ganacctgan gaaatngaaa ggatggttaa tgatgctgan gaagtttgct gaggaanaca 300 naaagctcaa ggagcgnatt gatattagaa gtgagttnga aagctatgcc tattctctat 360 agaatcagat tggngatnat tgaanagctg ggaggtnaan ttcctcngat agatnaggan 420 nannatngaa ngaagctgta ntngnaaang attganatng gctggaaang ctnncaaagn 480 atgcttaaca ttgnaaggac ttnaatagct taannnanaa gngtactggg tataaaantn 540 gttcanccan nttatcatca ngtttncatn ggaangtgna anggnnctnc tcgnnaactg 600 ggtgantnag gtttcancaa ganaaantat taagtttgnt agnnacngga tctggntang 660 tgnctgtana antggtntan tacggngnct caanggaact tag 703 4 618 DNA Homo sapiens misc_feature (362)..(362) The “n” at position 362 may be any of g, a, t, or c. 4 ggccacgaag gcccacagtg gtgcctacca agaagtctca gatcttttct acagcttctg 60 ataatcaacc aactgttaca atcaaggtct atgaaggtga aagacccctg acaaaagaca 120 atcatcttct gggtacattt gatctgactg gaattcctcc tgctcctcgt ggggtcccac 180 agattgaagt cacctttgag atagatgtga atggtattct tcgagtgaca gctgaagaca 240 agggtacagg gaacaaaaat aagatcacaa tcaccaatga ccagaatcgc ctgacacctg 300 aagaaatcga aaggatggtt aatgatgctg agaagtttgc tgaggaagac aaaaagctca 360 angagcgcat tgatactaag aaatgagttg gaaagctatg cctattctct aaagaatcag 420 attggngata aanaaaagct gggaggtaaa ctttcctctg aagataagga gaccatggaa 480 aaagctgtag aagaaaagat tgaatggctg gaaacccacc atgatgctga cattgaagac 540 ttcaaagcta agaagaagaa ctggaagaaa ttgttcaacc aattatcagc aaactctatg 600 ggaantgnag gcctccct 618 5 619 DNA Homo sapiens misc_feature (464)..(464) The “n” at position 464 may be any of g, a, t, or c. 5 ctgataatca accaactgtt acaatcaagg tctatgaagg tgaaagaccc ctgacaaaag 60 acaatcatct tctgggtaca tttgatctga ctggaattcc tcctgctcct cgtggggtcc 120 cacagattga agtcaccttt gagatagatg tgaatggtat tcttcgagtg acagctgaag 180 acaagggtac agggaacaaa aataagatca caatcaccaa tgaccagaat cgcctgacac 240 ctgaagaaat cgaaaggatg gttaatgatg ctgagaagtt tgctgaggaa gacaaaagct 300 caaggagcgc attgatacta gaaatgagtt ggtaagctat gcctattctc taaagaatca 360 gattggtgat aaagaaaagc tgggaggtaa actttcctct gaagataatg agaccatgga 420 aaaagctgta gaagaaaaga ttgaatggct ggaaagccac caanatgctg acattgaaga 480 cttcanagct aagannaatg nactggaaga aattgttcaa ccaantatca gcaaactcta 540 tggaagtgca ggccctcccc caaccggtga atatggtaca gcagaaaaag atgagttnta 600 nanactgatc tgctanttg 619 6 69 PRT Homo sapiens 6 Trp Asn Asp Pro Arg Gly His Glu Gly Pro Ala Ser Asp Asn Gln Pro 1 5 10 15 Thr Val Thr Ile Lys Val Tyr Glu Gly Glu Arg Pro Leu Thr Lys Asp 20 25 30 Asn His Leu Leu Gly Thr Phe Val Pro Thr Gly Ile Pro Pro Ala Pro 35 40 45 Arg Gly Val Pro Gln Ile Glu Val Thr Phe Glu Ile Asp Val Asn Gly 50 55 60 Ile Leu Arg Ser Asp 65 7 199 PRT Homo sapiens 7 His Glu Gly Pro Ala Ser Asp Asn Gln Pro Thr Val Thr Ile Lys Val 1 5 10 15 Tyr Glu Gly Glu Arg Pro Leu Thr Lys Asp Asn His Leu Leu Gly Thr 20 25 30 Phe Asp Leu Thr Gly Ile Pro Pro Ala Pro Arg Gly Val Pro Gln Ile 35 40 45 Glu Val Thr Phe Glu Ile Asp Val Asn Gly Ile Leu Arg Val Thr Ala 50 55 60 Glu Asp Lys Gly Thr Gly Asn Lys Asn Lys Ile Thr Ile Thr Asn Asp 65 70 75 80 Gln Asn Arg Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu Ile Glu Arg Met Val Asn Asp Ala 85 90 95 Glu Lys Phe Ala Glu Glu Asp Lys Lys Leu Lys Glu Arg Ile Asp Thr 100 105 110 Arg Asn Glu Leu Glu Ser Tyr Ala Tyr Ser Leu Lys Asn Gln Ile Gly 115 120 125 Asp Lys Glu Lys Leu Gly Gly Lys Leu Ser Ser Glu Asp Lys Glu Thr 130 135 140 Met Glu Lys Ala Val Glu Glu Lys Ile Glu Trp Leu Glu Ser His Gln 145 150 155 160 Asp Ala Asp Ile Val Asp Phe Lys Ala Asn Glu Gly Thr Gly Ile Asn 165 170 175 Cys Ser Ser Asn Tyr Gln Gln Thr Pro Met Glu Val Gln Ala Leu Pro 180 185 190 Gln Leu Val Lys Met Gln Ser 195 8 253 PRT Homo sapiens 8 Ala Gly Val Leu Ser Gly Asp Gln Asp Thr Gly Asp Leu Val Leu Leu 1 5 10 15 His Val Cys Pro Leu Thr Leu Gly Ile Glu Thr Val Gly Gly Val Met 20 25 30 Thr Lys Leu Ile Pro Ser Asn Thr Val Val Pro Thr Lys Asn Ser Gln 35 40 45 Ile Phe Ser Thr Ala Ser Asp Asn Gln Pro Thr Val Thr Ile Lys Val 50 55 60 Tyr Glu Gly Glu Arg Pro Leu Thr Lys Asp Asn His Leu Leu Gly Thr 65 70 75 80 Phe Asp Leu Thr Gly Ile Pro Pro Ala Pro Arg Gly Val Pro Gln Ile 85 90 95 Glu Val Thr Phe Glu Ile Asp Val Asn Gly Ile Leu Arg Val Thr Ala 100 105 110 Glu Asp Lys Gly Thr Gly Asn Lys Asn Lys Ile Thr Ile Thr Asn Asp 115 120 125 Gln Asn Arg Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu Ile Glu Arg Met Val Asn Asp Ala 130 135 140 Glu Lys Phe Ala Glu Glu Asp Lys Lys Leu Lys Glu Arg Ile Asp Thr 145 150 155 160 Arg Asn Glu Leu Glu Ser Tyr Ala Tyr Ser Leu Lys Asn Gln Ile Gly 165 170 175 Asp Lys Glu Lys Leu Gly Gly Lys Leu Ser Ser Glu Asp Lys Glu Thr 180 185 190 Met Glu Lys Ala Val Glu Glu Lys Ile Glu Trp Leu Glu Ser His Gln 195 200 205 Asp Ala Asp Ile Glu Asp Phe Lys Ala Lys Lys Lys Glu Leu Glu Glu 210 215 220 Ile Val Gln Pro Ile Ile Ser Lys Leu Tyr Gly Ser Ala Gly Pro Pro 225 230 235 240 Pro Thr Gly Glu Glu Asp Thr Ala Glu Lys Asp Glu Leu 245 250 9 196 PRT Homo sapiens MISC_FEATURE (124)..(124) The “Xaa” at position 124 may be any amino acid residue. 9 His Glu Gly Arg Pro Arg Arg Pro Thr Val Val Pro Thr Lys Lys Ser 1 5 10 15 Gln Ile Phe Ser Thr Ala Ser Asp Asn Gln Pro Thr Val Thr Ile Lys 20 25 30 Val Tyr Glu Gly Glu Arg Pro Leu Thr Lys Asp Asn His Leu Leu Gly 35 40 45 Thr Phe Asp Leu Thr Gly Ile Pro Pro Ala Pro Arg Gly Val Pro Gln 50 55 60 Ile Glu Val Thr Phe Glu Ile Asp Val Asn Gly Ile Leu Arg Val Thr 65 70 75 80 Ala Glu Asp Lys Gly Thr Gly Asn Lys Asn Lys Ile Thr Ile Thr Asn 85 90 95 Asp Gln Asn Arg Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu Ile Glu Arg Met Val Asn Asp 100 105 110 Ala Glu Lys Phe Ala Glu Glu Asp Lys Lys Leu Xaa Glu Arg Ile Asp 115 120 125 Thr Lys Gly Lys Leu Cys Leu Phe Ser Lys Glu Ser Asp Trp Xaa Xaa 130 135 140 Lys Ala Gly Arg Thr Phe Leu Arg Gly Asp His Gly Lys Ser Cys Arg 145 150 155 160 Arg Lys Asp Met Ala Gly Lys Pro Pro Cys His Arg Leu Gln Glu Glu 165 170 175 Glu Leu Glu Glu Ile Val Gln Pro Ile Ile Ser Lys Leu Tyr Gly Xaa 180 185 190 Xaa Arg Pro Pro 195 10 192 PRT Homo sapiens MISC_FEATURE (146)..(146) The “Xaa” at position 146 may be any amino acid residue. 10 His Glu Pro Asp Asn Gln Pro Thr Val Thr Ile Lys Val Tyr Glu Gly 1 5 10 15 Glu Arg Pro Leu Thr Lys Asp Asn His Leu Leu Gly Thr Phe Asp Leu 20 25 30 Thr Gly Ile Pro Pro Ala Pro Arg Gly Val Pro Gln Ile Glu Val Thr 35 40 45 Phe Glu Ile Asp Val Asn Gly Ile Leu Arg Val Thr Ala Glu Asp Lys 50 55 60 Gly Thr Gly Asn Lys Asn Lys Ile Thr Ile Thr Asn Asp Gln Asn Arg 65 70 75 80 Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu Ile Glu Arg Met Val Asn Asp Ala Glu Lys Phe 85 90 95 Ala Glu Glu Asp Lys Ser Ser Ser Ala Ile Leu Glu Met Ser Trp Met 100 105 110 Pro Ile Leu Ile Arg Val Ile Lys Lys Ser Trp Glu Val Asn Phe Pro 115 120 125 Leu Lys Ile Met Arg Pro Trp Lys Lys Leu Lys Lys Asn Gly Trp Lys 130 135 140 Thr Xaa Met Leu Thr Lys Thr Ser Xaa Leu Arg Xaa Met Xaa Trp Lys 145 150 155 160 Lys Phe Gln Xaa Ser Ala Asn Ser Met Glu Val Gln Ala Leu Pro Gln 165 170 175 Pro Val Asn Met Gln Gln Lys Lys Met Ser Xaa Xaa Xaa Ser Ala Xaa 180 185 190 11 222 PRT Homo sapiens MISC_FEATURE (21)..(21) The “Xaa” at position 21 may be any amino acid residue. 11 His Glu Pro Asp Asn Gln Pro Thr Val Thr Ile Lys Val Tyr Glu Gly 1 5 10 15 Glu Arg Pro Leu Xaa Lys Asp Asn His Leu Leu Gly Thr Phe Asp Leu 20 25 30 Thr Asn Ile Xaa Pro Ala Pro Arg Gly Val Pro Gln Ile Xaa His Leu 35 40 45 Asp Arg Cys Glu Trp Tyr Ser Ser Ser Asp Xaa Xaa Xaa Asp Lys Gly 50 55 60 Thr Gly Xaa Lys Thr Lys Ile Xaa Xaa Thr Lys Ser Xaa Ile Xaa Xaa 65 70 75 80 Leu Xaa Lys Xaa Lys Gly Trp Met Met Leu Xaa Lys Phe Ala Glu Glu 85 90 95 Xaa Xaa Lys Leu Lys Glu Arg Ile Asp Ile Arg Ser Glu Xaa Glu Ser 100 105 110 Tyr Ala Tyr Ser Leu Asn Gln Ile Gly Asp Xaa Xaa Ala Gly Arg Xaa 115 120 125 Xaa Ser Ser Arg Xaa Gly Xaa Xaa Xaa Xaa Glu Ala Val Xaa Xaa Xaa 130 135 140 Xaa Xaa Leu Glu Xaa Leu Xaa Lys Xaa Ala His Xaa Lys Xaa Asn Ser 145 150 155 160 Leu Xaa Xaa Lys Xaa Thr Gly Tyr Lys Xaa Xaa Ser Xaa Xaa Leu Ser 165 170 175 Ser Xaa Xaa His Xaa Xaa Val Xaa Xaa Xaa Xaa Ser Xaa Thr Gly Xaa 180 185 190 Arg Phe Xaa Gln Xaa Lys Xaa Leu Ser Leu Xaa Xaa Thr Gly Ser Xaa 195 200 205 Val Xaa Val Xaa Xaa Val Xaa Tyr Gly Xaa Ser Xaa Glu Leu 210 215 220 12 633 PRT Homo sapiens 12 Arg Leu Arg Asn Gly His Val Gly Ile Ser Phe Val Pro Lys Glu Thr 1 5 10 15 Gly Glu His Leu Val His Val Lys Lys Asn Gly Gln His Val Ala Ser 20 25 30 Ser Pro Ile Pro Val Val Ile Ser Gln Ser Glu Ile Gly Asp Ala Ser 35 40 45 Arg Val Arg Val Ser Gly Gln Gly Leu His Lys Gly His Thr Phe Glu 50 55 60 Pro Ala Glu Phe Ile Ile Asp Thr Arg Asp Ala Gly Tyr Gly Gly Leu 65 70 75 80 Ser Leu Ser Ile Glu Gly Pro Ser Lys Val Asp Ile Asn Thr Glu Asp 85 90 95 Leu Glu Asp Gly Thr Cys Arg Val Thr Tyr Cys Pro Thr Glu Pro Gly 100 105 110 Asn Tyr Ile Ile Asn Ile Lys Phe Ala Asp Gln His Val Pro Gly Ser 115 120 125 Pro Phe Ser Val Lys Val Thr Gly Glu Gly Arg Val Lys Glu Ser Ile 130 135 140 Thr Arg Arg Arg Arg Ala Pro Ser Val Ala Asn Val Gly Ser His Cys 145 150 155 160 Asp Leu Ser Leu Lys Ile Pro Glu Ile Ser Ile Gln Asp Met Thr Ala 165 170 175 Gln Val Thr Ser Pro Ser Gly Lys Thr His Glu Ala Glu Ile Val Glu 180 185 190 Gly Glu Asn His Thr Tyr Cys Ile Arg Phe Val Pro Ala Glu Met Gly 195 200 205 Thr His Thr Val Ser Val Lys Tyr Lys Gly Gln His Val Pro Gly Ser 210 215 220 Pro Phe Gln Phe Thr Val Gly Pro Leu Gly Glu Gly Gly Ala His Lys 225 230 235 240 Val Arg Ala Gly Gly Pro Gly Leu Glu Glu Gly Val Pro Glu Phe Ser 245 250 255 Trp Thr Arg Glu Ala Gly Ala Gly Leu Ala Ala Val Glu Pro Lys Ala 260 265 270 Glu Ile Ser Phe Glu Asp Arg Asp Ser Cys Gly Ala Tyr Val Gln Glu 275 280 285 Pro Gly Asp Tyr Glu Val Ser Val Lys Phe Asn Glu Glu His Ile Pro 290 295 300 Asp Ser Pro Phe Val Val Pro Val Ala Ser Pro Ser Gly Asp Ala Arg 305 310 315 320 Arg Leu Thr Val Ser Ser Leu Gln Glu Ser Gly Leu Lys Val Asn Gln 325 330 335 Pro Ala Ser Phe Ala Val Ser Leu Asn Gly Ala Lys Gly Ala Ile Asp 340 345 350 Ala Lys Val His Ser Pro Ser Gly Ala Leu Glu Glu Cys Tyr Val Thr 355 360 365 Glu Ile Asp Gln Asp Lys Tyr Ala Val Arg Phe Ile Pro Arg Glu Asn 370 375 380 Gly Val Tyr Leu Ile Asp Val Lys Phe Asn Gly Thr His Ile Pro Gly 385 390 395 400 Ser Pro Phe Lys Ile Arg Val Gly Glu Pro Gly His Gly Gly Asp Pro 405 410 415 Gly Leu Val Ser Ala Tyr Gly Ala Gly Leu Glu Gly Gly Val Thr Gly 420 425 430 Asn Pro Ala Glu Phe Val Val Asn Thr Ser Asn Ala Gly Ala Gly Ala 435 440 445 Leu Ser Val Thr Ile Asp Gly Pro Ser Lys Val Lys Met Asp Cys Gln 450 455 460 Glu Cys Pro Glu Gly Tyr Arg Val Thr Tyr Thr Pro Met Ala Pro Gly 465 470 475 480 Ser Tyr Leu Ile Ser Ile Lys Tyr Gly Gly Pro Tyr His Ile Gly Gly 485 490 495 Ser Pro Phe Lys Ala Lys Val Thr Gly Pro Arg Leu Val Ser Asn His 500 505 510 Ser Leu His Glu Thr Ser Ser Val Phe Val Asp Ser Leu Thr Lys Ala 515 520 525 Thr Cys Ala Pro Gln His Gly Ala Pro Gly Pro Gly Pro Ala Asp Ala 530 535 540 Ser Lys Val Val Ala Lys Gly Leu Gly Leu Ser Lys Ala Tyr Val Gly 545 550 555 560 Gln Lys Ser Ser Phe Thr Val Asp Cys Ser Lys Ala Gln Asn Asn Met 565 570 575 Leu Leu Val Gly Val His Gly Pro Arg Thr Pro Cys Glu Glu Ile Leu 580 585 590 Val Lys His Val Gly Ser Arg Leu Tyr Ser Val Ser Tyr Leu Leu Lys 595 600 605 Asp Lys Gly Glu Tyr Thr Leu Val Val Lys Trp Gly His Glu His Ile 610 615 620 Pro Gly Ser Pro Tyr Arg Val Val Pro 625 630 13 212 PRT Homo sapiens 13 His Glu Gly Arg Gly Val Thr Gly Asn Pro Ala Glu Phe Val Val Asn 1 5 10 15 Thr Ser Asn Ala Gly Ala Gly Ala Leu Ser Val Thr Ile Asp Gly Pro 20 25 30 Ser Lys Val Lys Met Asp Cys Gln Glu Cys Pro Glu Gly Tyr Arg Val 35 40 45 Thr Tyr Thr Pro Met Ala Pro Gly Ser Tyr Leu Ile Ser Ile Lys Tyr 50 55 60 Gly Gly Pro Tyr His Ile Gly Gly Ser Pro Phe Lys Ala Lys Val Thr 65 70 75 80 Gly Pro Arg Leu Val Ser Asn His Ser Leu His Glu Thr Ser Ser Val 85 90 95 Phe Val Asp Ser Leu Thr Lys Ala Thr Cys Ala Pro His His Gly Ala 100 105 110 Pro Gly Pro Gly Pro Ala Asp Ala Ser Lys Val Val Ala Lys Gly Leu 115 120 125 Gly Leu Ser Lys Ala Tyr Val Cys His Lys Ser Ser Phe Thr Val Asp 130 135 140 Cys Ser Lys Ala Cys Ile Ile Met Leu Leu Val Gly Val His Gly Pro 145 150 155 160 Trp Thr Pro Cys Asp Glu Ile Leu Val Lys Ala Arg Gly Gln Pro Ala 165 170 175 Leu Gln Arg Val Leu Thr Cys Phe Lys Asp Lys Gly Glu Val His Thr 180 185 190 Gly Gly Gln Asn Gly Gly Asp Tyr Gln Ile Pro Cys Lys Pro Leu Pro 195 200 205 Cys Gly Cys Pro 210 14 200 PRT Homo sapiens MISC_FEATURE (137)..(137) The “Xaa” at position 137 may be any amino acid residue. 14 His Glu Gly Arg Pro Thr Glu Pro Gly Asn Tyr Ile Ile Asn Ile Lys 1 5 10 15 Phe Ala Asp Gln His Val Pro Gly Ser Pro Phe Ser Val Lys Val Thr 20 25 30 Gly Glu Gly Arg Val Lys Glu Ser Ile Thr Arg Arg Arg Arg Ala Pro 35 40 45 Ser Val Ala Asn Val Gly Ser His Cys Asp Leu Ser Leu Lys Ile Pro 50 55 60 Glu Ile Ser Ile Gln Asp Met Thr Ala Gln Val Thr Ser Pro Ser Gly 65 70 75 80 Lys Thr His Glu Ala Glu Ile Val Glu Gly Glu Asn His Thr Tyr Cys 85 90 95 Ile Arg Phe Val Pro Ala Glu Met Gly Thr His Thr Val Ser Val Lys 100 105 110 Tyr Lys Gly Gln His Val Pro Gly Ser Pro Phe Gln Phe Thr Val Gly 115 120 125 Pro Leu Gly Glu Gly Gly Ala His Xaa Val Arg Ala Gly Gly Pro Gly 130 135 140 Leu Xaa Trp Ser Ala Arg Ile Gln Tyr Gly Pro Gly Lys Leu Val Leu 145 150 155 160 Glu Trp Pro Leu Ser Xaa Pro Xaa Leu Xaa Ser Leu Leu Arg Thr Ala 165 170 175 Thr Pro Val Val Leu Met Val Xaa Glu Pro Ser Asp Xaa Asn Pro Xaa 180 185 190 Gln Val Ser Thr Lys Glu His Xaa 195 200 15 195 PRT Homo sapiens 15 His Glu Gly Arg Gly Val Pro Glu Asp Leu Leu Asn Gly Leu Lys Val 1 5 10 15 Thr Asp Thr Gln Glu Ala Glu Cys Ala Gly Pro Pro Val Pro Asp Pro 20 25 30 Lys Asn Gln His Ser Gln Ser Lys Leu Leu Arg Asp Asp Glu Ala His 35 40 45 Leu Gln Glu Asp Gln Gly Glu Glu Glu Cys Phe His Asp Cys Ser Ala 50 55 60 Ser Phe Glu Glu Glu Pro Gly Ala Asp Lys Val Glu Asn Lys Ser Asn 65 70 75 80 Glu Asp Val Asn Ser Ser Glu Leu Asp Glu Glu Tyr Leu Ile Glu Leu 85 90 95 Glu Lys Asn Met Ser Asp Glu Glu Lys Gln Lys Arg Arg Glu Glu Ser 100 105 110 Thr Arg Leu Lys Glu Glu Gly Asn Glu Gln Phe Lys Lys Gly Asp Tyr 115 120 125 Ile Glu Ala Glu Ser Ser Tyr Ser Arg Ala Leu Glu Met Cys Pro Ser 130 135 140 Cys Phe Gln Lys Glu Arg Ser Ile Leu Phe Ser Asn Arg Ala Ala Ala 145 150 155 160 Arg Met Lys Gln Asp Lys Lys Glu Met Ala Ile Asn Asp Cys Ser Ile 165 170 175 Ala Ile Gln Leu Asn Pro Ser Tyr Ile Arg Ala Ile Leu Arg Arg Ala 180 185 190 Glu Phe Val 195 16 292 PRT Homo sapiens 16 Met Gly Glu Lys Ser Glu Asn Cys Gly Val Pro Glu Asp Leu Leu Asn 1 5 10 15 Gly Leu Lys Val Thr Asp Thr Gln Glu Ala Glu Cys Ala Gly Pro Pro 20 25 30 Val Pro Asp Pro Lys Asn Gln His Ser Gln Ser Lys Leu Leu Arg Asp 35 40 45 Asp Glu Ala His Leu Gln Glu Asp Gln Gly Glu Glu Glu Cys Phe His 50 55 60 Asp Cys Ser Ala Ser Phe Glu Glu Glu Pro Gly Ala Asp Lys Val Glu 65 70 75 80 Asn Lys Ser Asn Glu Asp Val Asn Ser Ser Glu Leu Asp Glu Glu Tyr 85 90 95 Leu Ile Glu Leu Glu Lys Asn Met Ser Asp Glu Glu Lys Gln Lys Arg 100 105 110 Arg Glu Glu Ser Thr Arg Leu Lys Glu Glu Gly Asn Glu Gln Phe Lys 115 120 125 Lys Gly Asp Tyr Ile Glu Ala Glu Ser Ser Tyr Ser Arg Ala Leu Glu 130 135 140 Met Cys Pro Ser Cys Phe Gln Lys Glu Arg Ser Ile Leu Phe Ser Asn 145 150 155 160 Arg Ala Ala Ala Arg Met Lys Gln Asp Lys Lys Glu Met Ala Ile Asn 165 170 175 Asp Cys Ser Lys Ala Ile Gln Leu Asn Pro Ser Tyr Ile Arg Ala Ile 180 185 190 Leu Arg Arg Ala Glu Leu Tyr Glu Lys Thr Asp Lys Leu Asp Glu Ala 195 200 205 Leu Glu Asp Tyr Lys Ser Ile Leu Glu Lys Asp Pro Ser Ile His Gln 210 215 220 Ala Arg Glu Ala Cys Met Arg Leu Pro Lys Gln Ile Glu Glu Arg Asn 225 230 235 240 Glu Arg Leu Lys Glu Glu Met Leu Gly Lys Leu Lys Asp Leu Gly Asn 245 250 255 Leu Val Leu Arg Pro Phe Gly Leu Ser Thr Glu Asn Phe Gln Ile Lys 260 265 270 Gln Asp Ser Ser Thr Gly Ser Tyr Ser Ile Asn Phe Val Gln Asn Pro 275 280 285 Asn Asn Asn Arg 290 17 218 PRT Homo sapiens MISC_FEATURE (35)..(35) The “Xaa” at position 35 may be any amino acid residue. 17 His Glu Gly Pro Ser Pro Pro Ser Leu Gly Ser Met Gly Glu Lys Ser 1 5 10 15 Glu Asn Cys Gly Val Pro Glu Asp Leu Leu Asn Gly Leu Lys Val Thr 20 25 30 Asp Thr Xaa Glu Ala Glu Cys Ala Gly Pro Pro Val Pro Asp Pro Lys 35 40 45 Asn Gln His Ser Gln Ser Lys Leu Leu Arg Asp Asp Glu Ala His Leu 50 55 60 Gln Glu Asp Gln Gly Glu Glu Glu Cys Phe His Asp Cys Ser Ala Ser 65 70 75 80 Phe Glu Glu Glu Pro Gly Ala Asp Lys Val Glu Asn Lys Ser Asn Glu 85 90 95 Asp Val Asn Ser Ser Glu Leu Asp Glu Glu Tyr Leu Ile Glu Leu Glu 100 105 110 Lys Asn Met Ser Asp Glu Glu Lys Gln Lys Arg Arg Glu Glu Ser Thr 115 120 125 Arg Leu Lys Glu Glu Gly Asn Glu Gln Phe Lys Lys Gly Asp Tyr Ile 130 135 140 Glu Ala Glu Ser Ser Tyr Ser Arg Ala Leu Glu Met Cys Pro Ser Cys 145 150 155 160 Phe Gln Lys Glu Arg Ser Ile Xaa Phe Ser Asn Arg Ala Ala Ala Arg 165 170 175 Met Xaa Gln Asp Lys Lys Glu Met Ala Ile Xaa Asp Cys Ser Lys Ala 180 185 190 Phe Asn Thr Pro Thr Ile Ser Xaa Gln Tyr Gly Xaa Gln Xaa Cys Leu 195 200 205 Arg Xaa Arg Thr Ser Xaa Xaa Pro Trp Met 210 215 18 209 PRT Homo sapiens MISC_FEATURE (37)..(37) The “Xaa” at position 37 may be any amino acid residue. 18 His Glu Gly Pro Leu Ala Ser Pro Pro Ser Leu Gly Ser Met Gly Glu 1 5 10 15 Lys Ser Glu Asn Cys Gly Val Pro Glu Asp Leu Leu Asn Gly Leu Lys 20 25 30 Val Thr Asp Thr Xaa Glu Ala Glu Cys Ala Gly Pro Pro Val Pro Asp 35 40 45 Pro Lys Asn Gln His Ser Gln Ser Lys Leu Leu Arg Asp Asp Glu Ala 50 55 60 His Leu Gln Glu Asp Gln Gly Glu Glu Glu Cys Phe His Asp Cys Ser 65 70 75 80 Ala Ser Phe Glu Glu Glu Pro Gly Ala Asp Lys Val Glu Asn Lys Ser 85 90 95 Asn Glu Asp Val Asn Ser Ser Glu Leu Asp Glu Glu Tyr Leu Ile Glu 100 105 110 Leu Glu Lys Asn Met Ser Asp Glu Glu Lys Gln Lys Arg Arg Glu Glu 115 120 125 Ser Thr Xaa Leu Lys Glu Glu Gly Asn Glu Gln Phe Lys Lys Gly Asp 130 135 140 Tyr Ile Xaa Ala Glu Ser Ser Tyr Ser Arg Ala Leu Glu Met Cys Pro 145 150 155 160 Ser Cys Phe Gln Lys Glu Xaa Ser Ile Leu Phe Ser Asn Thr Ala Ala 165 170 175 Ala Xaa Asp Xaa Thr Gly Gln Glu Xaa Asn Gly His Pro Met Thr Ala 180 185 190 Xaa Leu Gln Phe Asn Pro His Leu Tyr Xaa Gly Xaa Ile Xaa Asp Xaa 195 200 205 Met 19 212 PRT Homo sapiens MISC_FEATURE (7)..(7) The “Xaa” at position 7 may be any amino acid residue. 19 His Glu Gly Arg Ser Leu Xaa Ser Pro Pro Ser Leu Gly Ser Met Gly 1 5 10 15 Glu Lys Ser Glu Asn Cys Gly Val Pro Glu Asp Leu Leu Asn Gly Leu 20 25 30 Lys Val Thr Asp Thr Gln Glu Ala Glu Cys Ala Gly Pro Pro Xaa Pro 35 40 45 Asp Pro Lys Asn Gln His Ser Gln Ser Lys Leu Leu Arg Asp Asp Glu 50 55 60 Ala His Leu Gln Glu Asp Gln Gly Glu Glu Glu Cys Phe His Asp Cys 65 70 75 80 Ser Ala Ser Phe Glu Glu Glu Pro Gly Ala Asp Xaa Val Glu Asn Lys 85 90 95 Ser Asn Glu Asp Val Asn Ser Ser Glu Leu Xaa Glu Glu Tyr Leu Ile 100 105 110 Xaa Leu Glu Lys Asn Met Ser Asp Glu Glu Lys Xaa Lys Arg Arg Xaa 115 120 125 Xaa Ser Thr Arg Leu Lys Xaa Glu Gly Asn Glu Gln Phe Lys Lys Gly 130 135 140 Asp Tyr Ile Glu Ala Glu Ser Ser Tyr Lys Ser Ser Pro Arg Asn Val 145 150 155 160 Pro Ile Leu Leu Pro Lys Xaa Glu Val Asp Ser Ile Phe Xaa Tyr Ser 165 170 175 Cys Ser Lys Gly Asn Met Xaa Xaa Lys Lys Trp Xaa Ser Xaa Asp Cys 180 185 190 Ser Lys Ala Phe Xaa Thr Pro Thr Tyr Xaa Xaa Asn Ile Xaa Asp Ile 195 200 205 Arg Val Xaa Xaa 210 20 745 DNA Homo sapiens misc_feature (493)..(493) The “n” at position 493 may be any of g, a, t, or c. 20 gtgatattat tgtagatcta gaagtcactt tggaagaagt atatgcagga aattttgtgg 60 aagtagttag aaacaaacct gtggcaaggc aggctcctgg caaacggaag tgcaattgtc 120 ggcaagagat gcggaccacc cagctgggcc ctgggcgctt ccaaatgacc caggaggtgg 180 tctgcgacga atgccctaat gtcaaactag tgaatgaaga acgaacgctg gaagtagaaa 240 tagagcctgg ggtgagagac ggcatggagt acccctttat tggagaaggt gagcctcacg 300 tggatgggga gcctggagat ttacggttcc gaatcaaagt tgtcaagcac ccaatatttg 360 aaaggagagg agatgatttg tacacaaatg tgacaatctc attagttgag tcactggttg 420 gctttgagat ggatattact cacttggatg gtcacaaggt acatatttcc cgggataaag 480 atcaccaggc cangagcgaa tctatggaan aaaggggaag ggctccccaa ctttgacaac 540 aacaatatca agggctcctt gataatcact tttgangtgg atttttccan aagaacagtt 600 acagaggaag ccanagaagt atcaaaacan ctactnaaac aaagtcaatt cagaagnntn 660 caatggaccg caangatttg aaaantgaat aaattgncnt tgttaaaata attnattanc 720 catnattatn antcaaggtt ttttt 745 21 17 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence pACT-specific sequencing primer 21 taccactaca atggatg 17 22 10 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence Myc-tag of pSM2NT vector 22 Glu Gln Lys Leu Ile Ser Glu Glu Asp Leu 1 5 10 23 15 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence immunogenic peptide 23 Arg Asn Lys Pro Val Ala Arg Gln Ala Pro Gly Lys Arg Lys Cys 1 5 10 15 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for inducing apoptosis in a cell that expresses Bip/GRP78, said method comprising: providing said cell with apoptin which interferes with Bip/GRP78-mediated apoptosis inhibiting activity.
 2. A method for inducing apoptosis in a cell, said method comprising: providing said cell with apoptin and a second protein wherein said second protein comprises Bip/GRP78-mediated apoptosis inhibiting activity and wherein said second protein associates with apoptin.
 3. The method according to claim 2, wherein said apoptin and said second protein are provided by expression of nucleic acid molecules encoding said apoption and said second protein.
 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein said interfering is provided by Bip/GRP78 associating with said apoptin protein.
 5. The method according to claim 2, wherein when said second protein associates with apoptin, said apoptin is translocated to the nucleus of said cell.
 6. The method according to claim 2, wherein apoptosis induction is enhanced by further providing said cell with VP2. 